SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Positional asphyxia</title>

</head>

Positional asphyxia

</h1>

</header>

Positional asphyxia, also known as postural asphyxia, is a form of <a href="Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxia</a> which occurs when someone's <a href="Human_positions" class="mw-redirect" title="Human positions">position</a> prevents the person from <a href="Breath" class="mw-redirect" title="Breath">breathing</a> adequately. People may die from positional asphyxia accidentally, when the mouth and nose are blocked, or where the chest may be unable to fully expand.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div>

A 1992 article in The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology<a href="#cite_note-Reay_1992-1">[1]</a> and a 2000 article in The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology said that multiple cases have been associated with the hogtie or hobble prone restraint position.

The <a href="New_York_Police_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Police Department">New York Police Department</a>'s guidelines, explaining protocols for mitigating in-custody deaths, were published in a 1995 <a href="United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a> bulletin on "positional asphyxia."<a href="#cite_note-ncjrs_1995-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT_20141204-3">[3]</a> The NYPD recommended that, "[a]s soon as the subject is handcuffed, get him off his stomach. Turn him on his side or place him in a seated position."<a href="#cite_note-ncjrs_1995-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT_20141204-3">[3]</a> A 1996 FBI bulletin said that many law enforcement and health personnel were being taught to avoid restraining people face-down or to do so only for a very short period of time.<a href="#cite_note-ncjrs_Reay_1996-4">[4]</a>

Resuscitation of persons who exhibit cardiac arrest following restraint has proven to be difficult, according to a 1995 article in <a href="Annals_of_Emergency_Medicine" title="Annals of Emergency Medicine">Annals of Emergency Medicine</a>. Even in cases where the subject was in the immediate care of paramedics, resuscitation has failed and the subject has died.<a href="#cite_note-Stratton_1995-5">[5]</a> A March 1999 article in the Academic Emergency Medicine journal reported that one group of doctors had presented a method of resuscitation, correcting <a href="Acidosis" title="Acidosis">acidosis</a> in the blood of the victim, which proved effective in their small scale study.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> A 2010 article in the Journal of the Tennessee Medical Association reported a single case of successful resuscitation using "aggressive sedation", "ventilatory assistance" among other interventions but added that "avoiding hobble and prone restraint positions may eliminate some of the problems".<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>

In 1997 <a href="Annals_of_Emergency_Medicine" title="Annals of Emergency Medicine">Annals of Emergency Medicine</a> article reported on a single small laboratory study in which "15 healthy men ages 18 through 40 years" were placed in the "hobble" or "hog-tie" restraint position. Researchers found that the effects of restraint on the breathing and oxygen levels these 15 healthy men, was limited.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

A 2002 review of the literature published in the British Journal of Forensic Practice said that restraining a person in a face-down position is likely to cause greater restriction of breathing than restraining a person face-up.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

A 2008 article in <a href="Medicine%2C_Science_and_the_Law" title="Medicine, Science and the Law">Medicine, Science and the Law</a> said that the way the subject is restrained can also increase the risk of death, for example kneeling or otherwise placing weight on the subject and particularly any type of restraint hold around the subject's neck. Research measuring the effect of restraint positions on lung function suggests that restraint which involves bending the restrained person or placing body weight on them has more effect on their breathing than face-down positioning alone.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

In the United States, there were 16 reported deaths in police custody between 1998 and 2009 in which restraint was a "direct or contributory factor to the death." The investigation into the deaths resulted in a 2010 report tabled by the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC).<a href="#cite_note-TBIJ_Bell_20120131-11">[11]</a>

Prolonged (particularly resisted) restraint, obesity, prior cardiac or respiratory problems, and the use of illicit drugs such as cocaine can increase the risk of death by restraint, according to a 2001 article in American Journal of Emergency Medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Stratton_2001-12">[12]</a>

Positional asphyxia is not limited to restraint in a face down position according to a 2011 article in Medicine, Science, and the Law. Restraining a person in a seated position may also reduce the ability to breathe, if the person is pushed forwards with the chest on or close to the knees. The risk will be higher in cases where the restrained person has a high <a href="Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> (BMI) and/or large waist girth.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

A 2012 series by the <a href="Bureau_of_Investigative_Journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Investigative Journalism">Bureau of Investigative Journalism</a> (TBIJ) reported that, since the late 1990s, coroners used the term <a href="Excited_delirium" title="Excited delirium">excited delirium</a> to explain restraint-related deaths involving police officers.<a href="#cite_note-TBIJ_20120213-14">[14]</a> A May 1997 article in Wiener klinische Wochenschrift said that deaths in real life situations occur after <a href="Excited_delirium" title="Excited delirium">excited delirium</a>, which had not been studied in laboratory simulations at that time.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accident_or_illness">Accident or illness</h2></div>

Positional asphyxia may also occur as a result of accident or illness, according to a 2008 article in the <a href="Journal_of_Forensic_and_Legal_Medicine" title="Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine">Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> This can include bed rail strangulation.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

A 2008 EMBO Reports article on <a href="Sudden_infant_death_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden infant death syndrome">sudden infant death syndrome</a>, said that the number of diagnoses of 'accidental suffocation', 'wedging' or 'positional asphyxia' had increased."<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

Olympic track athlete <a href="Florence_Griffith-Joyner" class="mw-redirect" title="Florence Griffith-Joyner">Florence Griffith-Joyner</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and ex-Major League Baseball player <a href="John_Marzano" title="John Marzano">John Marzano</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> both died due to positional asphyxia, the former following an epileptic seizure and the latter following a fall down a flight of stairs.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFReayFlignerStilwellArnold1992" class="citation journal cs1">Reay, D. T.; Fligner, C. L.; Stilwell, A. D.; Arnold, J. (June 1992). "Positional asphyxia during law enforcement transport". The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 13 (2): 90–97. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00000433-199206000-00002">10.1097/00000433-199206000-00002</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0195-7910">0195-7910</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1510077">1510077</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ncjrs_1995-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ncjrs_1995_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ncjrs_1995_2-1">b</a> <cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/posasph.pdf">Positional Asphyxia—Sudden Death</a> (PDF) (Report). 1995.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-NYT_20141204-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYT_20141204_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYT_20141204_3-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFThe_Editorial_Board2014" class="citation news cs1">The Editorial Board (December 4, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/05/opinion/eric-garner-daniel-pantaleo-and-lethal-police-tactics.html">"It Wasn't Just the Chokehold"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved June 8, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ncjrs_Reay_1996-4"><a href="#cite_ref-ncjrs_Reay_1996_4-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFReay1996" class="citation journal cs1">Reay, D.T. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=161292">"Suspect Restraint and Sudden Death"</a>. Law Enforcement Bulletin. <a href="Quantico%2C_Virginia" title="Quantico, Virginia">Quantico, Virginia</a>.</cite> via Federal Bureau of Investigation

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Stratton_1995-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Stratton_1995_5-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStrattonRogersGreen1995" class="citation journal cs1">Stratton, S. J.; Rogers, C.; Green, K. (May 1995). "Sudden death in individuals in hobble restraints during paramedic transport". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 25 (5): 710–712. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0196-0644%2895%2970187-7">10.1016/s0196-0644(95)70187-7</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0196-0644">0196-0644</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7741355">7741355</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHickSmithLynch1999" class="citation journal cs1">Hick, J. L.; Smith, S. W.; Lynch, M. T. (March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1553-2712.1999.tb00164.x">"Metabolic acidosis in restraint-associated cardiac arrest: a case series"</a>. Academic Emergency Medicine. 6 (3): 239–243. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1553-2712.1999.tb00164.x">10.1111/j.1553-2712.1999.tb00164.x</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1069-6563">1069-6563</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10192677">10192677</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAlshayebShowkatWall2010" class="citation journal cs1">Alshayeb, Hala; Showkat, Arif; Wall, Barry M. (December 2010). "Lactic acidosis in restrained cocaine intoxicated patients". Tennessee Medicine: Journal of the Tennessee Medical Association. 103 (10): 37–39. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1088-6222">1088-6222</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21186707">21186707</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChanVilkeNeumanClausen1997" class="citation journal cs1">Chan, T. C.; Vilke, G. M.; Neuman, T.; Clausen, J. L. (November 1997). "Restraint position and positional asphyxia". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 30 (5): 578–586. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0196-0644%2897%2970072-6">10.1016/s0196-0644(97)70072-6</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0196-0644">0196-0644</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9360565">9360565</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Parkes, J. (2002) ‘A Review of the Literature on Positional Asphyxia as a Possible Cause of Sudden Death During Restraint.’ British Journal of Forensic Practice. 4(1) 24–30.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFParkesCarson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Parkes, John; Carson, Ray (April 1, 2008). "Sudden death during restraint: do some positions affect lung function?". <a href="Medicine%2C_Science_and_the_Law" title="Medicine, Science and the Law">Medicine, Science and the Law</a>. 48 (2): 137–141. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1258%2Frsmmsl.48.2.137">10.1258/rsmmsl.48.2.137</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-8024">0025-8024</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18533573">18533573</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46557450">46557450</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-TBIJ_Bell_20120131-11"><a href="#cite_ref-TBIJ_Bell_20120131_11-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBell2012" class="citation web cs1">Bell, Dan (January 1, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130127021943/http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2012/01/31/police-guidelines-fail-to-ban-restraint-techniques-that-can-kill/">"Police guidelines permit techniques that can kill"</a>. The <a href="Bureau_of_Investigative_Journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Investigative Journalism">Bureau of Investigative Journalism</a> (TBIJ). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2012/01/31/police-guidelines-fail-to-ban-restraint-techniques-that-can-kill">the original</a> on January 27, 2013. Retrieved June 7, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Stratton_2001-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Stratton_2001_12-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStrattonRogersBrickettGruzinski2001" class="citation journal cs1">Stratton, S. J.; Rogers, C.; Brickett, K.; Gruzinski, G. (May 2001). "Factors associated with sudden death of individuals requiring restraint for excited delirium". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 19 (3): 187–191. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.620.1614">10.1.1.620.1614</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1053%2Fajem.2001.22665">10.1053/ajem.2001.22665</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0735-6757">0735-6757</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11326341">11326341</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFParkesThakePrice2011" class="citation journal cs1">Parkes, John; Thake, Doug; Price, Mike (July 2011). "Effect of seated restraint and body size on lung function". Medicine, Science, and the Law. 51 (3): 177–181. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1258%2Fmsl.2011.010148">10.1258/msl.2011.010148</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-8024">0025-8024</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21905575">21905575</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28631704">28631704</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-TBIJ_20120213-14"><a href="#cite_ref-TBIJ_20120213_14-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMoleStickler2012" class="citation web cs1">Mole, Charlie; Stickler, Angus (February 13, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130127021931/http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2012/02/13/excited-delirium-case-list/">"Excited delirium case list"</a>. The <a href="Bureau_of_Investigative_Journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Investigative Journalism">Bureau of Investigative Journalism</a> (TBIJ). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2012/02/13/excited-delirium-case-list">the original</a> on January 27, 2013. Retrieved June 7, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRoegglaWagnerMuellnerBur1997" class="citation journal cs1">Roeggla, M; Wagner, A; Muellner, M; Bur, A; Roeggla, H; Hirschl, Mm; Laggner, An; Roeggla, G (May 23, 1997). "Cardiorespiratory Consequences to Hobble Restraint". Wiener klinische Wochenschrift. 109 (10): 359–61. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9200808">9200808</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFByardWickGilbert2008" class="citation journal cs1">Byard, Roger W.; Wick, Regula; Gilbert, John D. (October 2008). "Conditions and circumstances predisposing to death from positional asphyxia in adults". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 15 (7): 415–419. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jflm.2008.01.001">10.1016/j.jflm.2008.01.001</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1752-928X">1752-928X</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18761306">18761306</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.twincities.com/2013/07/23/cold-spring-nursing-home-cited-after-residents-bed-rail-asphyxiation/">"Cold Spring nursing home cited after resident's bed-rail asphyxiation – Twin Cities"</a>. 23 July 2013. Retrieved 2020-06-08.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFThach2008" class="citation journal cs1">Thach, Bradley (February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2246416">"Tragic and sudden death. Potential and proven mechanisms causing sudden infant death syndrome"</a>. EMBO Reports. 9 (2): 114–118. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.embor.7401163">10.1038/sj.embor.7401163</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-221X">1469-221X</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2246416">2246416</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18246101">18246101</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAnderson" class="citation magazine cs1">Anderson, Kristina Rebelo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/1998/12/04/cov_04newsa/">"The uneasy death Of Florence Griffith Joyner"</a>. <a href="Salon_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salon (magazine)">Salon</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inquirer.com/philly/hp/sports/20080718_Medical_examiner_says_a_fall_killed_John_Marzano.html">"Medical examiner says a fall killed John Marzano"</a>. Philadelphia Inquirer. July 18, 2008.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-18" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Positional_asphyxia&oldid=1301177093">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>